Pilot Training
MH370 Decoded: Pilot Training
Since Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 went missing on Saturday, 8 March 2014 attention has been focussed on the pilots, officially in Reports, and in Media. Describing the background of each pilot, their training and experience, necessarily involves terminology which may not be familiar.
In this article some of those terms, and maybe a few extra ones, are explained or 'decoded'.
- ab-initio
A latin term meaning from the beginning.
Trainee pilots attending a flight school with no previous experience or licence receive ab-initio training - their pilot training begins at the very beginnming.
Example: In 1981 Malaysia Airlines sent Zaharie Shah to the PAL Aviation School in the Philippines to be provided ab-initio pilot training.
- FAA and EASA
Each country and member State of the ICAO has their own regulations and requirements pilot training and licensing. However, in practice this will align with standards set by Europe or the United States:-
- United States - Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
- Europe - European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
Differences include pre-requisite age and medical criteria; ratio of theory versus practice; flight hours required; and more.
Example: Currently (2025) the Civil Aviation Authority of Malaysia (CAAM) prerequisites for obtaining a Commercial Pilot's Licence (CPL) "you must be at least 18 years old". This is consistent with EASA requirements. FAA minimum age for a CPL is 21.
- Private Pilot Licence (PPL)
A Private Pilot's Licence allows a person to fly a single-engine light aircraft for private (non-commercial) purposes - without paying passengers - under Visual Flight Rules (VFR).
More specifically, this category of aircraft is an airplane - a fixed-wing aeroplane powered by an engine.
Other categories include: helicopter, glider, airship and powered parachute.
Example: A Private Pilot Licence specifies the category and class, and rating: airplane category; single-engine class; and Visual Flight Rules (VFR) rating.
- Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL)
The main difference between a Private Pilot Licence and a Commercial Pilot Licence is the permission to carry a small number of paying passengers.
It is not necessary to hold a PPL first. Ab-initio courses are designed to train candidates to be commercial pilots. Additional theory, solo hours and navigation exercises are involved.
Example: The course undertaken by Zaharie Shah at the PAL Aviation School took two years to complete.
- Instrument Rating (IR)
The Private Pilot Licence restricts the pilot to Visual Flight Rules which include distance from the ground, distance from clouds, and avoiding bad weather and reduced visibility, and no flying at night. These conditions are unsafe and the pilot can easily become disoriented.
Training for these situations requires a pilot to rely solely on the aircraft instruments:- altimeter (height above sea level), airspeed indicator (not the same as speed relative to the ground), attitude meter (the position of the aircraft relative to the horizon) and navigation instruments. In addition, Air Traffic Control can assist with flight path, navigation, and other instructions.
Example: After two years at the PAL Aviation School, Zaharie Shah graduated with a Commercial Pilot Licence & Instrument Rating (CPL & IR).
- Airline Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL)
The next step for a graduate pilot with both a CPL and IR is to get an Airline Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL). However, this requires flight time so is a two-step process.
The pilot must complete all of the theory examinations for the ATPL, but the licence cannot be issued until the requisite hours have been logged. Informally, the ATPL is 'frozen' until all of the requirements are met. A frozen ATPL is basically a CPL + IR + ATPL Theory. Pilots at this stage may be employed as a Second Officer until they gain a full ATPL.
Example: Fariq Hamid joined Malaysia Airlines as a cadet pilot and after completing his training at the Langkawi Aerospace Training Centre in 2008 he flew on Boeing 737 aircraft as a Second Officer.
- First Officer
A promotion from Second Officer to First Officer follows completion of the requirements for the Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL).
A First Officer is often referred to as a co-pilot.
Example: Fariq Hamid was a Second Officer from 2008 until May 2010 when he was promoted to First Officer.
- Pilot-in-Command (PIC)
The Pilot-in-Command is responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft.
If there is more than one pilot, the Pilot-in-Command has the final authority and legal responsibility.
Example: Zaharie Shah was a First Officer until July 1990 when he was promoted to Captain. He was pilot-in-command of Malaysia Airlines Fokker F50 aircraft.
Captain Zaharie Shah was the Pilot-in-Command (PIC) of Malaysia Airlines flight MH370.- Airplane Classes
Aircraft categories have been listed above. Of those the focus is on fixed-wing powered aircraft referred to as an airplane.
There are four different Classes of airplane based on the number of engines - single engine or multi-engine; and whether designed for land or sea.
Examples: The Fokker F50 aircraft flown by Captain Zaharie Shah was multi-engined and propellor-driven. The iconic PBY Catalina was a multi-engined sea plane.
- Transport Aircraft
Aircraft are certified for different purposes and given a category based on factors like weight, number of passengers and whether capable of aerobatic flight.
The Transport category includes aircraft with piston engines or jet engines and different passenger seating and weight for each engine type.
The FAA Transport category includes jets with 10 or more passenger seats or maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) greater than 12,500 lb (5700 kg); or modern propeller-driven airplanes with more than 19 passenger seats or a MTOW greater than 19,000 lb (8618 kg).[1]
Example: The Boeing 777 has several variants but all have a MTOW exceeding 500,000 kg and capable of carrying up to 440 passengers (777-200ER)
- Type and Rating
Aircraft certification includes a Type, and a pilot needs a Type Rating to fly that specific aircraft.
The Boeing 777 is a Transport aircraft, so a pilot must have an Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL) and must, in addition, have a Type Rating, which in this instance is B-777.
The pilot achieves the type rating by further study and examinations which cover the technical aspects of the aircraft in detail and practice in a flight simulator. The training is conducted by a Type Rating Instructor.
The next stage is actual flight experience under supervision and an evaluation on a test flight by a Type Rating Examiner.
Example: Fariq Hamid was transitioning from First Officer on Malaysia Airlines Airbus A330 to the Boeing 777. He had completed the theory component of the training, and completed the flight simulator sessions, and had flown on several Boeing 777 aircraft supervised by the Pilot-in-Command. Prior to flight MH370 a third pilot was also on the flight deck. Fariq had 39 hours total experience on the Boeing 777.
- Type Rating Instructor (TRI)
Training for a specific type of transport aircraft must be conducted by a person with the appropriate licence and Type Rating.
Malaysia Airlines operated an accredited training Academy for pilot training and cabin crew training.
Example: Zaharie Shah was made a Type Rating Instructor (TRI) and Type Rating Examiner (TRE) on the Boeing 777 fleet in November 2007.
- Type Rating Examiner (TRE)
Like a TRI, the Type Rating Examiner must also hold the appropriate licence and Type Rating.
Type Rating Instructor and Type Rating Examiner certification needs to be periodically renewed or revalidated.
A Type Rating Examiner also conducts the regular proficiency checks for pilots.
Example: On flight MH370 Captain Zaharie Shah was "conducting the last phase of the Co-pilot’s training as a B777 First Officer, in the capacity of a TRE".
- ↑ Source: Wikipedia Transport Category.
Note: Some Internet sources insert the word and instead of or.
Summary
The two main organisations which set standards for pilot training and licensing are the FAA (United States) and EASA (Europe). Websites providing information may rely on one, or the other, without highlighting the differences. In addition, each member state of the ICAO has it's own Regulations which facilitate compliance with international standards but may also be different. For example, the words category or class, and type or rating can be used interchangeably in the context of country-specific regulations or websites.
The simplification here is to aid an understanding of matters relating to flight MH370, not unravel the complex pilot licensing processes in each jurisdiction.
Websites which provide useful background are:-